UERJ 2020 Inglês - Questões

The power of metaphors

Imagine your city isn’t as safe as it used to be. Robberies are on the rise, home invasions are increasing and murder rates have nearly doubled in the past three years. What should city officials do about it? Hire more cops to round up the thugs and lock them away in a growing network of prisons? Or design programs that promise more peace by addressing issues like a faltering economy and underperforming schools?

Your answer – and the reasoning behind it – can hinge on the metaphor being used to describe the problem, according to new research by Stanford psychologists. Your thinking can even be swayed with just one word, they say.

Psychology Assistant Professor Lera Boroditsky and doctoral candidate Paul Thibodeau were curious about how subtle cues and common figures of speech can frame approaches to difficult problems. “Some estimates suggest that one out of every 25 words we encounter is a metaphor”, said Thibodeau, the study’s lead author. “But ¹we didn’t know the extent to which these metaphors influence people”.

In five experiments, ²test subjects were asked to read short paragraphs about rising crime rates in the fictional city of Addison and answer questions about the city. The researchers gauged how people answered these questions in light of how crime was described – as a beast or a virus.

They found the test subjects’ proposed solutions differed a great deal depending on the metaphor they were exposed to. The results have shown that people will likely support an increase in police forces and jailing of offenders if crime is described as a “beast” preying on a community. But if people are told crime is a “virus” infecting a city, they are more inclined to treat the problem with social reform. According to Boroditsky: “People like to think they’re objective. They want to believe they’re logical. But they’re really being swayed by metaphors”.

To get a sense of how much the metaphor really mattered, the researchers also examined what role political persuasions play in people’s approach to reducing crime. They suspected that Republicans would be more inclined to catch and incarcerate criminals than Democrats, who would prefer enacting social reforms. They found Republicans were about 10 percent more likely to suggest an enforcement-based solution.

“We can’t talk about any complex situation – like crime – without using metaphors”, said Boroditsky. “³Metaphors aren’t just used for flowery speech. They shape the conversation for things we’re trying to explain and figure out. And they have consequences for determining what we decide is the right approach to solving problems”. While their research focused on attitudes about crime, their findings can be used to understand the implications of how a casual or calculated turn of phrase can influence debates and change minds.

(Adaptado de news.stanford.edu.)

O que nossas metáforas dizem de nós

Para o poeta Robert Frost, a vida era um caminho que passa por encruzilhadas inevitáveis; para Fernando Pessoa, uma sombra que passa sobre um rio. Shakespeare via o mundo como um palco e Scott Fitzgerald percebia os seres humanos como barcos contra a corrente. Metáforas como essas nos rodeiam, mas não só quando seguramos um livro nas mãos. Em nosso uso cotidiano da língua, elas são tão presentes que nem sequer percebemos. São exemplos “teto de vidro impede a carreira das mulheres”, “a bolha do aluguel”, “cortar o mal pela raiz”. ¹Considerada a forma por excelência da linguagem figurada, a metáfora às vezes é tida como mero embelezamento do discurso.

Entretanto, desde 1980, com a publicação do livro Metáforas da vida cotidiana, essa figura retórica recuperou seu protagonismo. Os autores George Lakoff e Mark Johnson mostraram que as alegorias desenham o mapa conceitual a partir do qual observamos, pensamos e agimos. Com frequência são nossa bússola invisível, orientando tanto os gestos instintivos que fazemos como as decisões mais importantes que tomamos. É muito provável que aqueles que concebem a vida como uma cruz e os que a entendem como uma viagem não reajam da mesma forma ante um mesmo dilema. As metáforas são ferramentas eficazes e de múltiplas utilidades. Ao partir de elementos já conhecidos, nos ajudam a examinar realidades, conceitos e teorias novas de uma maneira prática. Também nos servem para abordar experiências traumáticas nas quais a linguagem literal se revela impotente. São vigorosos atalhos que a mente usa para assimilar situações complexas em que a literalidade acaba sendo tediosa, limitada e confusa. É mais fácil para nós entender que a depressão é uma espécie de buraco negro e que o DNA é o manual de instruções de cada ser vivo.

As figurações dão coesão às identidades coletivas, pois circulam sem cessar até se incorporarem à linguagem cotidiana. Há alguns anos, os psicólogos Paul Thibodeau e Lera Boroditsky, da Universidade Stanford (E.U.A.), analisaram os resultados de um debate sobre políticas contra a criminalidade que recorria a duas metáforas. Quando o problema era ilustrado como se houvesse predadores devorando a comunidade, a resposta era endurecer a vigilância policial e aplicar leis mais severas. No entanto, quando o problema era exposto como um vírus infectando a cidade, a opção era a de adotar medidas para erradicar a desigualdade e melhorar a educação. Comparações ruins levam a políticas ruins, escreveu o Nobel de Economia Paul Krugman.

No campo da medicina, tem havido mudanças de paradigma no que diz respeito ao impacto emocional das metáforas. Num recente seminário organizado pela Universidade de Navarra (Espanha), a linguista Elena Semino dissertou sobre os efeitos de abordar o câncer como se fosse uma guerra, provocando sensações negativas quando o paciente acredita estar “perdendo a batalha”, mesmo que isso possa ser estimulante para outros. O erro, segundo a especialista, reside em misturar os campos semânticos da guerra e da saúde. Para corrigir essa questão, a linguista elabora o que chama de “cardápio de metáforas”, para que médicos e pacientes enfrentem a doença de forma mais construtiva.

As boas metáforas nos trazem outras perspectivas, fronteiras menos rígidas e novas categorizações que substituem aquelas já desgastadas.

(MARTA REBÓN. Adaptado de brasil.elpais.com, $11/04/2018$.)

The power of metaphors discusses the use of metaphors in daily life, as well as the text O que nossas metáforas dizem de nós.

The following metaphor is present in both texts:

The power of metaphors

Imagine your city isn’t as safe as it used to be. Robberies are on the rise, home invasions are increasing and murder rates have nearly doubled in the past three years. What should city officials do about it? Hire more cops to round up the thugs and lock them away in a growing network of prisons? Or design programs that promise more peace by addressing issues like a faltering economy and underperforming schools?

Your answer – and the reasoning behind it – can hinge on the metaphor being used to describe the problem, according to new research by Stanford psychologists. Your thinking can even be swayed with just one word, they say.

Psychology Assistant Professor Lera Boroditsky and doctoral candidate Paul Thibodeau were curious about how subtle cues and common figures of speech can frame approaches to difficult problems. “Some estimates suggest that one out of every 25 words we encounter is a metaphor”, said Thibodeau, the study’s lead author. “But ¹we didn’t know the extent to which these metaphors influence people”.

In five experiments, ²test subjects were asked to read short paragraphs about rising crime rates in the fictional city of Addison and answer questions about the city. The researchers gauged how people answered these questions in light of how crime was described – as a beast or a virus.

They found the test subjects’ proposed solutions differed a great deal depending on the metaphor they were exposed to. The results have shown that people will likely support an increase in police forces and jailing of offenders if crime is described as a “beast” preying on a community. But if people are told crime is a “virus” infecting a city, they are more inclined to treat the problem with social reform. According to Boroditsky: “People like to think they’re objective. They want to believe they’re logical. But they’re really being swayed by metaphors”.

To get a sense of how much the metaphor really mattered, the researchers also examined what role political persuasions play in people’s approach to reducing crime. They suspected that Republicans would be more inclined to catch and incarcerate criminals than Democrats, who would prefer enacting social reforms. They found Republicans were about 10 percent more likely to suggest an enforcement-based solution.

“We can’t talk about any complex situation – like crime – without using metaphors”, said Boroditsky. “³Metaphors aren’t just used for flowery speech. They shape the conversation for things we’re trying to explain and figure out. And they have consequences for determining what we decide is the right approach to solving problems”. While their research focused on attitudes about crime, their findings can be used to understand the implications of how a casual or calculated turn of phrase can influence debates and change minds.

(Adaptado de news.stanford.edu.)

The author of the text introduces the topic by making use of the following strategy:

The power of metaphors

Imagine your city isn’t as safe as it used to be. Robberies are on the rise, home invasions are increasing and murder rates have nearly doubled in the past three years. What should city officials do about it? Hire more cops to round up the thugs and lock them away in a growing network of prisons? Or design programs that promise more peace by addressing issues like a faltering economy and underperforming schools?

Your answer – and the reasoning behind it – can hinge on the metaphor being used to describe the problem, according to new research by Stanford psychologists. Your thinking can even be swayed with just one word, they say.

Psychology Assistant Professor Lera Boroditsky and doctoral candidate Paul Thibodeau were curious about how subtle cues and common figures of speech can frame approaches to difficult problems. “Some estimates suggest that one out of every 25 words we encounter is a metaphor”, said Thibodeau, the study’s lead author. “But ¹we didn’t know the extent to which these metaphors influence people”.

In five experiments, ²test subjects were asked to read short paragraphs about rising crime rates in the fictional city of Addison and answer questions about the city. The researchers gauged how people answered these questions in light of how crime was described – as a beast or a virus.

They found the test subjects’ proposed solutions differed a great deal depending on the metaphor they were exposed to. The results have shown that people will likely support an increase in police forces and jailing of offenders if crime is described as a “beast” preying on a community. But if people are told crime is a “virus” infecting a city, they are more inclined to treat the problem with social reform. According to Boroditsky: “People like to think they’re objective. They want to believe they’re logical. But they’re really being swayed by metaphors”.

To get a sense of how much the metaphor really mattered, the researchers also examined what role political persuasions play in people’s approach to reducing crime. They suspected that Republicans would be more inclined to catch and incarcerate criminals than Democrats, who would prefer enacting social reforms. They found Republicans were about 10 percent more likely to suggest an enforcement-based solution.

“We can’t talk about any complex situation – like crime – without using metaphors”, said Boroditsky. “³Metaphors aren’t just used for flowery speech. They shape the conversation for things we’re trying to explain and figure out. And they have consequences for determining what we decide is the right approach to solving problems”. While their research focused on attitudes about crime, their findings can be used to understand the implications of how a casual or calculated turn of phrase can influence debates and change minds.

(Adaptado de news.stanford.edu.)

¹we didn’t know the extent to which these metaphors influence people.

In the fragment above, the doubt expressed by the researcher can be formulated by the following question:

The power of metaphors

Imagine your city isn’t as safe as it used to be. Robberies are on the rise, home invasions are increasing and murder rates have nearly doubled in the past three years. What should city officials do about it? Hire more cops to round up the thugs and lock them away in a growing network of prisons? Or design programs that promise more peace by addressing issues like a faltering economy and underperforming schools?

Your answer – and the reasoning behind it – can hinge on the metaphor being used to describe the problem, according to new research by Stanford psychologists. Your thinking can even be swayed with just one word, they say.

Psychology Assistant Professor Lera Boroditsky and doctoral candidate Paul Thibodeau were curious about how subtle cues and common figures of speech can frame approaches to difficult problems. “Some estimates suggest that one out of every 25 words we encounter is a metaphor”, said Thibodeau, the study’s lead author. “But ¹we didn’t know the extent to which these metaphors influence people”.

In five experiments, ²test subjects were asked to read short paragraphs about rising crime rates in the fictional city of Addison and answer questions about the city. The researchers gauged how people answered these questions in light of how crime was described – as a beast or a virus.

They found the test subjects’ proposed solutions differed a great deal depending on the metaphor they were exposed to. The results have shown that people will likely support an increase in police forces and jailing of offenders if crime is described as a “beast” preying on a community. But if people are told crime is a “virus” infecting a city, they are more inclined to treat the problem with social reform. According to Boroditsky: “People like to think they’re objective. They want to believe they’re logical. But they’re really being swayed by metaphors”.

To get a sense of how much the metaphor really mattered, the researchers also examined what role political persuasions play in people’s approach to reducing crime. They suspected that Republicans would be more inclined to catch and incarcerate criminals than Democrats, who would prefer enacting social reforms. They found Republicans were about 10 percent more likely to suggest an enforcement-based solution.

“We can’t talk about any complex situation – like crime – without using metaphors”, said Boroditsky. “³Metaphors aren’t just used for flowery speech. They shape the conversation for things we’re trying to explain and figure out. And they have consequences for determining what we decide is the right approach to solving problems”. While their research focused on attitudes about crime, their findings can be used to understand the implications of how a casual or calculated turn of phrase can influence debates and change minds.

(Adaptado de news.stanford.edu.)

²test subjects were asked to read short paragraphs

The reason for the omission of the agent in the sentence above is:

The power of metaphors

Imagine your city isn’t as safe as it used to be. Robberies are on the rise, home invasions are increasing and murder rates have nearly doubled in the past three years. What should city officials do about it? Hire more cops to round up the thugs and lock them away in a growing network of prisons? Or design programs that promise more peace by addressing issues like a faltering economy and underperforming schools?

Your answer – and the reasoning behind it – can hinge on the metaphor being used to describe the problem, according to new research by Stanford psychologists. Your thinking can even be swayed with just one word, they say.

Psychology Assistant Professor Lera Boroditsky and doctoral candidate Paul Thibodeau were curious about how subtle cues and common figures of speech can frame approaches to difficult problems. “Some estimates suggest that one out of every 25 words we encounter is a metaphor”, said Thibodeau, the study’s lead author. “But ¹we didn’t know the extent to which these metaphors influence people”.

In five experiments, ²test subjects were asked to read short paragraphs about rising crime rates in the fictional city of Addison and answer questions about the city. The researchers gauged how people answered these questions in light of how crime was described – as a beast or a virus.

They found the test subjects’ proposed solutions differed a great deal depending on the metaphor they were exposed to. The results have shown that people will likely support an increase in police forces and jailing of offenders if crime is described as a “beast” preying on a community. But if people are told crime is a “virus” infecting a city, they are more inclined to treat the problem with social reform. According to Boroditsky: “People like to think they’re objective. They want to believe they’re logical. But they’re really being swayed by metaphors”.

To get a sense of how much the metaphor really mattered, the researchers also examined what role political persuasions play in people’s approach to reducing crime. They suspected that Republicans would be more inclined to catch and incarcerate criminals than Democrats, who would prefer enacting social reforms. They found Republicans were about 10 percent more likely to suggest an enforcement-based solution.

“We can’t talk about any complex situation – like crime – without using metaphors”, said Boroditsky. “³Metaphors aren’t just used for flowery speech. They shape the conversation for things we’re trying to explain and figure out. And they have consequences for determining what we decide is the right approach to solving problems”. While their research focused on attitudes about crime, their findings can be used to understand the implications of how a casual or calculated turn of phrase can influence debates and change minds.

(Adaptado de news.stanford.edu.)

³Metaphors aren’t just used for flowery speech. $\underline{\textbf{They shape the conversation for things we’re trying to explain and figure out}}$.

In order to clarify the meaning relation between the two sentences above, the following word can be inserted in the underlined one: